Dervish Efendi, born Judah Levi Tova, was a seminal religious thinker, mystic, and social reformer within the 18th-century Dönme community of the Ottoman Empire. Following Sabbatai Zevi, Nathan of Gaza, and Baruchia Russo, and Russo’s sons, he may be considered the leading figure of the fourth generation of great Sabbatean mystics in the empire.

Known for his bold and sometimes controversial reinterpretations of Dönme doctrines, Dervish Efendi sought to revitalize the spiritual and communal life of his sect through a synthesis of mystical traditions and radical theology. He authored numerous hymns, mystical poems, Zoharic commentaries, and kabbalistic treatises, drawing inspiration from figures such as Sabbatai Zevi, Nathan of Gaza, Abraham Miguel Cardozo, and Jacob Frank.

His writings—primarily in Judeo-Spanish, laced with Turkish and Hebrew—remain invaluable for understanding the evolving theology and spiritual temperament of the Dönme in this period. His devotional poetry often blurred the lines between divine longing and romantic desire.

While Gershom Scholem believed Dervish Efendi to be of Kapancı origin, circumstantial evidence suggests he may have belonged instead to the Karakaş branch of the Dönme. Following the death of Osman Baba’s son, Abdurrahman, in 1781, Dervish Efendi assumed a prominent leadership role within the community. His student, Ambarcı—who later succeeded him—was buried in the Karakaş section of the Bülbülderesi Cemetery, further supporting this affiliation. Dr. İsmail H. Esen, who in the 1930s and 1940s provided several hymn manuscripts to Yitzhak Ben-Zvi, claimed to be a descendant of Dervish Efendi. Based on the content and style of these texts, Ben-Zvi leaned toward identifying their origin as Karakaş.

Accounts of Dervish Efendi’s identity and legacy vary widely. One of the most extensive narratives comes from the early 20th-century chronicler Ebu’l Mecdet, who insists that Dervish was a Kapancı, fluent in multiple languages and deeply learned in both Jewish and Islamic thought. According to Mecdet, Dervish joined the Naqshbandi Sufi order in Salonika, where he rose to the rank of sheikh, becoming widely respected in the region. His students reportedly included rabbis and scholars whom he encouraged toward a deeper understanding of religious philosophy and, in some cases, toward conversion to Islam.

Although some of the details require historical verification, Ebu’l Mecdet provides a rare and valuable account of Dervish Efendi’s life—one that merits quoting in full.

“It was also during this period (circa 1850s) that a man named Derviş Efendi, belonging to the Kapancı tribe, emerged. This man completed his education under the various sheikhs of different Sufi orders in Salonika and affiliated himself with the Naqshbandi order. In this order, Derviş Efendi rose entirely to the rank of sheikh and gained the respect, reverence, and a notable position among the people of the entire region. Being well-versed in the principles of the glorious Muhammadan Shari‘a, Sheikh Derviş Efendi began preaching to the members of his own tribe, leading many to affiliate themselves with the Sufi lodge (tekke). He trained a considerable number of students and exerted all his efforts to rescue the members of his tribe—who remained in a state of deviation due to their false beliefs—from the mire of ignorance.

Since Derviş Efendi had thoroughly mastered Hebrew, Spanish, Arabic, Persian, and Turkish, he had become a renowned scholar of his time. In matters of religious philosophy, he possessed such extraordinary ability and strength that even rabbis would sit at his feet to learn the intricacies of the Hebrew language, and he would impart to them a proper understanding of religious philosophy and the power of the Divine. It was also during this time that he invited many Jewish scholars to embrace the religion of Muhammad and led them to conversion.

It is true that various irregularities, inconsistent with Derviş Efendi’s scholarly stature, have been reported through hearsay, but their exact nature remains entirely unclear.

Derviş Efendi’s intention can be understood to some extent from his actions. At night, while teaching the students he trained at his lectern, he would, on the one hand, instill respect for the teachings of Sabbatai Sevi with a kind of moderate and cautious interpretation, and, on the other hand, encourage these poor souls—gifted with intelligence and brilliance yet wandering in a state of deviation—to pursue the study of sciences and arts. Among the young people raised during this period, signs of progress became visibly noticeable under the influence of this guidance.

Yet alas, the feelings of ignorance and self-interest, which had poisoned the members of the tribe, could not be calmed nor could they be made to subside. They still could not abandon certain corrupt customs inherited from their ancestors.”

— Cengiz Sisman and Muharrem Varol, "Sabatâîstlik," Türk Sesi, no. 198 (16 November 1924), p. 12

Dervish Efendi’s commentaries employed intricate gematria and offered radical readings of Torah passages such as Lekh Lekha and Bereshit, often citing the Hebrew text and blending it with Turkish and Ladino. One striking example is his reference to Sabbatai Sevi as tsadik temel del mundo—“the righteous man [Hebrew], the foundation [Turkish] of the world [Ladino].”

Perhaps the most controversial aspect of his legacy is his reinterpretation of sexual norms, particularly his endorsement of a practice later referred to as the “lamb festival.” Rooted in esoteric readings of the Zohar, Dervish Efendi advocated the abrogation of sexual prohibitions found in the “Torah of Creation” and endorsed a concept of “collective marriage,” wherein women were symbolically united with all male members of the sect. This teaching, which echoed and perhaps influenced the Frankist movement, raises complex questions about transmission and innovation within antinomian religious traditions.

Whether these doctrines were original to Dervish Efendi or adapted from earlier Dönme or Frankist ideas remains an open question. What is certain, however, is that his writings and teachings mark a crucial chapter in the history of religious dissent, mystical syncretism, and cultural hybridity in the late Ottoman world.

Author: Cengiz Sisman